Table 3 Left ventricular (LV) vortex and energetic characteristics in patients with systolic dysfunction and heart failure (HF) evaluated by 4D-flow magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Bolger et al. 2007 [16]

4D-flow MRI

Single patient with DCM and LV-EF 31%, 17 normal controls.

Reduced end-diastolic DF.

Reduced end-diastolic KE.

Eriksson et al. 2011 [17]

4D-flow MRI

Single patients with DCM and LV-EF 35%, 13 normal controls.

Reduced DF.

Reduced late-diastolic KE of DF.

Eriksson et al. 2013 [41]

4D-flow MRI

10 patients with DCM and LV-EF 42 ± 5%, 10 normal controls.

Reduced DF compared to normal controls (20 ± 5% vs. 38 ± 5%, P < 0.0125).

End-diastolic KE per ml of DF similar to normal controls.

Kanski et al. 2015 [42]

4D-flow MRI

29 HF patients (62% with IHD) with LV-EF 26 ± 8%, 8 normal controls.

Non reported.

Higher systolic KE compared to normal controls (2.2 ± 1.4 mJ vs. 1.6 ± 0.6 mJ, P = 0.048), no difference in diastolic KE (3.2 ± 2.3 mJ vs. 2.0 ± 0.8 mJ, P = 0.13).

Svalbring et al. 2016 [43]

4D-flow MRI

26 patients with chronic IHD with no-to-mild LV systolic dysfunction, 10 normal controls.

DF reduced with increasing LV EDV index and ESV index (r =-0.64 and r = -0.74, both P < 0.001).

DF KE reduced with increasing LV EDV index and ESV index (r = -0.48, P = 0.013, and r = -0.56, P = 0.003).

Riva et al. 2024 [44]

4D-flow MRI

15 patients with ICM, 15 normal controls.

Vortex ring less circular at peak E-wave (P = 0.032) and more circular at peak A-wave (P = 0.034) in ICM patients.

At both peak E-wave and peak A-wave, vorticity index, KE index and rate of viscous EL index significantly decreased in ICM patients.